⒈ David Freeman Research Paper
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Yvonne Freeman \u0026 David Freeman - Academic Language for English Language Learners
Tong, Wilson, Philipp Reiss, Freeman, David J. Philipp, Cited by: Fabian Ocker, Gallen, vol. David Freeman, Freeman, Cited by: David S. David S. Ahn, David S. Xi Zhi Lim, Freeman, David, Cited by: Freeman, David, Wakker, Jonathan P. Chabris, Larry G. Alexander K. Victor H. Evidence from a Large-scale Experiment ," Papers Holden, Stein T. Holden , Stein T. Cited by: Arthur E. Arthur E. Discussion Papers. Cheung, Stephen L. Stephen L. Cheung, Daniele Pennesi, Park Hyeon, Journal of Theoretical Economics , De Gruyter, vol. All the students were encouraged to connect their reading and writing in English to their own cultural backgrounds and to value the literacy of their communities, including oral literary traditions. Shifini studied older struggling immigrant students, including those with limited formal schooling.
He makes specific suggestions for improving their literacy. A key is to build on what students bring to the classroom — their language, culture, and previous experience — to help them develop the knowledge and skills they need to succeed academically. They looked particularly at ways teachers supported intermediate students who lacked first-language literacy and experienced difficulties in reading in English. The researchers concluded that effective instruction for language-minority students was challenging, encouraged involvement, provided opportunities for success, and included scaffolding and a variety of graphic organizers to draw on background knowledge and give students access to content.
In addition, they found that effective teachers give frequent feedback, make the content comprehensible, encourage collaborative interactions, and show respect for cultural diversity. While it is important to provide challenging curriculum for older English learners, it is equally important to support them as they study. Teachers can use a variety of techniques to make the input comprehensible, including visuals, gestures, and graphic organizers. In addition, research by Kagan has shown the benefits of cooperative learning for language minority students.
They know that they are behind the other students in both their English proficiency and their knowledge of academic content areas. As students experience academic success, their attitudes begin to change, and they engage more fully in the curriculum. In the final section, we describe how one teacher puts the four keys into action in her fourth, fifth, sixth grade newcomer class. Every portion of the small classroom and three adjoining alcoves is filled with professional and student made posters, class produced big books, student art work, song and poetry charts, a computer, a listening center, a board game an activity corner, a math section, and a science corner.
Everywhere there are books in Spanish and English, including many literature and content books in card racks and in large accessible, open boxes. The classroom belongs to the students, and they all know where materials and books are kept. Because the class is a community the students know that they all have the responsibility of taking care of what is there. Since her students have had little previous schooling and suffer from various degrees of culture shock, Sandra has found that having classroom routines helps them adjust to school and concentrate on learning to read, write, and problem solve. Her students must not only develop literacy in their first language but also prepare themselves to survive academically in English. Therefore, the daily routine includes many opportunities for students to develop literacy in their first and second languages while learning language through academic content.
The class frequently works in heterogeneous groups so students with different talents can share their knowledge and help others. Sandra also includes many opportunities for them to use different modalities as they learn. For example, the indigenous Mixteco and Trique students from southern Mexico, who have had little schooling, shine when illustrating class publications. When students work in centers, they are paired up so that a stronger student can help a classmate who needs more support. Whenever possible Sandra encourages students to take responsibility for leading activities.
She provides ample time daily for students to read and write. She reads to and with students several times during the day and encourages them to analyze texts and think critically. She also ensures that there is ample time for students to choose books and engage in free voluntary reading. Sandra builds on what they bring to school by developing a theme study each year around agriculture. This theme draws on students' prior knowledge and personal experiences. It is meaningful for them since it directly relates to their lives. Through teaching this theme, Sandra can present concepts the students may have missed due to their limited prior schooling. Each topic flowed into the next giving the students the opportunity to develop vocabulary in the target language while developing key concepts.
She brought the cycle to completion by helping her students see that good nutrition depends on the plants and crops their families provide for everyone. Sandra involved parents from the beginning. She started the theme study by sending a note home asking parents to share with their children traditional recipes that they usually eat. The idea of this activity was to later prepare some of those recipes in the classroom, analyzing the nutritional value of their ingredients and discussing how those products travel from the field to the table. The students were proud of their knowledge and that of their parents. This activity let me learn from my students and their parents.
Sandra read the book in Spanish to her class and was soon interrupted by her indigenous Triqui and Mixteco students. When she read how the earth was worked to plant the corn and then dried to make flour, these usually shy students excitedly told her how they had done that in their villages and began to explain in detail how they helped grind the dry corn, make the flour, and how they knew how to make tortillas. Sandra is from Argentina and knew little about tortillas, but her students told her that they wanted to teach her. They wanted to show her how to make tortillas.
The students were eager to take on the role of teacher, sharing their knowledge. The class discussed the ingredients they needed for their tortilla project. They investigated where the ingredients came from. They researched the different varieties of tortillas and the kinds of foods eaten with tortillas. The Mixteco and Triqui students, who were usually ashamed of their culture and language backgrounds, organized to bring all the needed items to class for a cooking demonstration.
The students who were not involved in the demonstration were assigned to take notes during the whole process. Sandra and the students gathered the materials and the utensils needed for the demonstration. They arranged the room so the students taking notes would have a clear view of what was happening at each table. Sandra labeled each utensil to build vocabulary. Sandra remembered well the day of the demonstration.
Since students from indigenous groups of southern Mexico have corn as the main element of their daily food, there is a tradition within the families that every female member needs to have the tools necessary to pick, to grind and to cook the corn. The students brought different utensils given to them by relatives as gifts. They were all hand made. The petate, a basket that women hang back from their shoulders or heads is used to collect the corn as it is picked; the metate , a stone used to grind the kernels with water to make corn flour; the molcajete, a stone bowl in which the ingredients are mashed to make sauce; and the comal , a circular metal grill on which the tortillas are cooked.
Once all the utensils and ingredients were placed on the tables, the students went straight to work. At the first table, they explained how the corn is gathered and how the people in their community arrange and keep it for later use. One of the students in this group showed the class different techniques for removing the kernels from the cob. This process is done each week by their mothers at home or by the students themselves. After this step was completed, students moved to the next table where another group of students was preparing green chili sauce and red chili sauce to eat later on with the homemade tortillas being prepared by their classmates. The students put the chilies and tomatoes over the comal to cook the skin so they could be peeled more easily.
Once the chilis and tomatoes were ready, they put then into the molcajete and mashed them together. They added salt, water and a little bit of fresh garlic. They tasted the sauce and when it was done, the students moved to the next station. At the third table, a student who cooks for her family daily when she gets home from school, was in charge of making the dough for the tortillas. She showed mastery in preparing it, and she directed her helpers, showing them how to prepare each tortilla by hand or by using a pressing machine.
In a short period of time everybody at this table was working together to get the tortillas ready to be cooked. The collaborative work they did showed also the community created in the classroom. The students observing and taking notes were respectful of others working, and they were attentive to the whole process. Everybody was an active participant, and the cooks shined at being the experts in front of their peers and the teacher. When the tortillas were ready, the students at the fourth table started cooking the tortillas and flipping them over by hand as their mothers do every day. The students even taught their teacher how to turn the tortillas over by hand.
As soon as the tortillas were ready students started to prepare tacos. They used different ingredients Sandra had brought including cheese, lettuce, tomatoes, and refried beans. Then everybody ate tortillas. During the following days, students worked at writing science books about making tortillas. Since students in the class have brothers and sisters in other classes at the school, the word about the tortilla presentation spread through the school. When Sandra told the students about the invitation, they were proud of themselves and they were eager to share with the little ones what they knew.
The second grade teachers who invited them were amazed to see their self- confidence, their self- esteem, and the ability that the students showed at their presentation. In the process, they began to build the academic vocabulary and the literacy they lacked due to their limited previous schooling. Like the case study student, Blia, these students arrive at middle or high school in the United States with little schooling background.
They lack many basic academic concepts expected of students their age. They may be unfamiliar with school routines. Such students face the challenge of developing both conversational and academic English along with subject matter concepts. Few older students receive the benefits of placement into a bilingual program where they can receive primary language instruction while learning English. Teachers like Sandra can at least preview and review concepts in the first language of most of her students, and this helps her make the instruction more comprehensible. Sandra also has the same students for up to three years. Recent immigrants with limited formal schooling need time, a stable classroom environment, and appropriate curriculum is they are to make the gains they must make to succeed academically.
Sandra also has long-term English learners in her class. These students, like the case study student, Mireya, have attended school in the United States for several years. However, they have not received effective bilingual education. They were either placed in English only classes or in early transition bilingual classes. As a result, they did not develop primary language literacy, and while they were developing conversational English they fell behind in academic subject matter knowledge. Sandra knows that for long-term English learners to succeed, academic English proficiency is the key. She challenges these students with demanding curriculum. She provides many reading and writing experiences. These students have grade-level literacy in their primary language and knowledge of academic subject areas.
In some cases, their parents are also literate. They often become class leaders, and Sandra has them direct class activities. Recent arrivals with adequate formal schooling still face challenges. They must learn to understand English instruction, and they need to be able to read fairly complex texts in English. Teachers need to challenge them and still provide the support they need to succeed academically. All three types of students; the recent arrivals with limited formal schooling, the long-term English learners, and the recent arrivals with adequate schooling, benefit from a curriculum that incorporates the four research-based keys identified in this article. Teachers like Sandra provide effective instruction for her older English learners. She organizes her year around a series of related themes.
Through these theme studies, students begin to develop key academic concepts. She includes challenging activities in her curriculum, but she provides many kinds of support. She plans collaborative activities and scaffolds instruction to help her students develop academic English proficiency. Many of these students are in middle school or high school. However in these upper grades, there are few effective bilingual programs for older students whose English is limited. In some cases, teachers are not adequately prepared to teach these students.
The first step in providing effective instruction for older English language learners is to recognize differences among them. Some, like Stephanie, come with adequate primary language schooling. Since they have academic proficiency in their primary language and subject matter knowledge, they can transfer this knowledge into English. Students like Stephanie often succeed in a short time.
They move into mainstream classes and achieve good grades. Others, however, like Blia and Mireya, struggle. Both recent arrivals with limited formal schooling and long-term English learners lack the academic English language and the subject matter knowledge needed for academic success. A review of the research on effective instruction for middle and high school-age English language learners points to certain key practices that promote academic achievement. When teachers incorporate these practices, their students become more confident. They begin to value school and value themselves as learners. When teachers follow the four keys identified in this article, they provide the most effective instruction for their bilingual students and help them achieve academic success.
References Cisneros, S. The House on Mango Street. New York: Vintage Contemporaries. Freeman, D. Between worlds: Access to second language acquisition, 2nd ed. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Student cultural diversity: Understanding and meeting the challenge second ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Lessons from research: What is the length of time it takes limited English proficient students to acquire English and succeed in an all-English classroom? Gersten, R. A delicate balance: Enhancing literature instruction for students of English as a second language. The Reading Teacher, 47 6 , National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. The circuit: Stories from the life of a migrant child. Albuquerque, N. The Reading Teacher, 54 8 , Jones, R. The acorn people.
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