✍️✍️✍️ Assignment 3.4 Explain The Construction Challenge
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2008 International Construction Challenge
Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips. Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :. Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started. The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class.
For example:. Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements.
Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.
Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:. Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed.
Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there. Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that he or she will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason.
If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. The images coming out of the Deep South horrified Americans from all walks of life. In August , King and other civil rights leaders organized what had been to that point the largest-ever demonstration in the capital: the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. A reluctant Kennedy administration began coordinating with congressional allies to pass a significant reform bill. McCulloch and Celler forged a coalition of moderate Republicans and northern Democrats while deflecting southern amendments determined to cripple the bill.
I think we all realize that what we are doing [today] is a part of an act of God. In scope and effect, the act was among the most far-reaching pieces of legislation in U. It contained sections prohibiting discrimination in public accommodations Title II ; in state and municipal facilities, including schools Titles III and IV ; and—incorporating the Powell Amendment—in any program receiving federal aid Title V. Having passed the House, the act faced its biggest hurdle in the Senate.
President Johnson and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield of Montana tapped Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota to build Senate support for the measure and fend off the efforts of a determined southern minority to stall it. President Johnson signed the bill into law on July 2, The legislation suspended the use of literacy tests and voter disqualification devices for five years, authorized the use of federal examiners to supervise voter registration in states that used tests or in which less than half the voting-eligible residents registered or voted, directed the U.
Attorney General to institute proceedings against use of poll taxes, and provided criminal penalties for violations of the act. Passage of the Civil Rights Act of dealt the deathblow to southern congressional opposition. On March 7, , marchers led by future Representative John R. As with the brutality in Birmingham, public reaction was swift and, if possible, even more powerful. The sight of them rolling over us like human tanks was something that had never been seen before. After President Johnson addressed a Joint Session of Congress to speak about the events in Selma, legislative action was swift. The bill that quickly moved through both chambers suspended the use of literacy tests for a five-year period and stationed federal poll watchers and voting registrars in states with persistent patterns of voting discrimination.
It also required the Justice Department to approve any change to election law in those states. Conyers, along with Representatives Diggs, Hawkins, and Powell, had visited Selma in February as part of a Member congressional delegation that investigated voting discrimination. An amended conference report passed both chambers by wide margins, and President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act of into law on August 6, The measure dramatically increased voter registration in the short term.
By , 60 percent of all southern blacks were registered. Predictably, the bill had the biggest effect in the Deep South. In Mississippi, for instance, where less than 7 percent of African Americans qualified to vote in , 59 percent were on voter rolls by In southern states, particularly in cities such as Atlanta, Houston, and Memphis, the creation of districts with a majority of African-American constituents propelled greater numbers of African Americans into Congress by the early s.
In northern cities, too, the growing influence of black voters reshaped Congress. African Americans constituted a growing percentage of the population of major U. Louis , and Shirley Chisholm Brooklyn were elected to Congress from redrawn majority-black districts in which white incumbents chose not to run. The final major piece of civil rights legislation of the decade was designed to extend the legal protections outlawing racial discrimination beyond the Civil Rights Act of and the Voting Rights Act of In President Johnson called for additional legislation to protect the safety of civil rights workers, end discrimination in jury selection, and eliminate restrictions on the sale or rental of housing.
Over the next two years, opposition to this legislation emerged from both parties, leading to a protracted battle that culminated in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of Benefitting from Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress, the Johnson administration instituted immigration reforms and created federally funded programs to stimulate urban development, bolster consumer protection, strengthen environmental regulations, fund education programs, and expand the social safety net by providing health coverage through Medicare and Medicaid. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of on April 11, The act prohibited discrimination in the sale or rental of approximately 80 percent of the housing in the U. Newly elected Senator Edward Brooke of Massachusetts fourth from left attended the signing.
At the start of the 90th Congress — , President Johnson once again called for a new civil rights bill. This time, the Democratic strategy was to propose several bills based on the component parts of the failed bill from the 89th Congress. In so doing, Democrats hoped to pass as many of the individual bills as possible. During the tumultuous summer of , access to housing was at the forefront of a national discussion on urban policy, particularly after violence erupted in cities such as Detroit and Newark, New Jersey. House Democrats were unable to attract support for a fair housing bill in the summer of But the House did pass a narrow civil rights bill on August 15, , which established federal penalties for anyone forcibly interfering with the civil and political rights of individuals.
The bill specified that civil rights workers would be afforded similar protections when serving as advocates for those trying to exercise their rights. Many justified their resistance to the proposed legislation by highlighting the riots that broke out in July In the Senate, Republicans joined segregationist Democrats in what seemed to be formidable opposition to the bill. When the upper chamber finally began to debate the legislation in February , Senator Brooke joined with Senator Walter Mondale of Minnesota to draft an amendment designed to prohibit discrimination in the sale or rental of 91 percent of all housing in the nation. On the Senate Floor, Brooke described the way segregated neighborhoods, typically far from employment opportunities, did extensive damage to the African-American community.
When he declared that he was open to supporting the fair housing amendment with some revisions, negotiations began between the parties. The final bill included several concessions to Dirksen, such as reducing the housing covered by the fair housing provision. Also, an amendment was added to the bill to attract the support of Senators who had been reluctant to vote for the civil rights bill, which made it a federal crime to cross state lines to participate in a riot.
An additional amendment prohibited Native American tribal governments from restricting the exercise of specific constitutional rights on their lands. For decades, opponents on the Rules Committee blocked civil rights initiatives, and Colmer sought to keep the Senate bill off the floor by sending it to a conference committee, where it could be debated and revised, or simply stalled, by Members. On April 4—the day before the Rules Committee was scheduled to vote on whether to send the bill to the House Floor or to send it to conference—Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. The Rules Committee postponed its vote. A violent weekend in cities across the nation resulted in 46 people killed, thousands injured, and millions of dollars in property damage before the National Guard helped quelled the disturbances.
Unexpectedly, a majority of the committee defied the chairman and voted to send the bill to the floor. Representative Joseph D. Less than a week later, the House approved the Senate bill by a vote of to , and President Johnson signed it into law on April 11, The enforcement mechanisms of the fair housing provision, however, ended up being somewhat limited in that it required private individuals or advocacy groups to file suit against housing discrimination. Next Section.
See also David J. A useful overview of Congress and civil rights is Timothy N. Zelizer Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, : — Another useful secondary work, which touches on aspects of the voting rights reform legislative effort, is Steven F. Truman Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, : —, — Harry S. In the literature addressing air pollution in both developed and developing world, contingent valuation studies are mainly implemented. The health consequences from alternative pollution abatement policies are explicitly stated in the valuation scenario and respondents are asked their maximum willingness to pay to contribute in the implementation costs of the policy under evaluation.
Mortality and mobility effects of air pollution have been studied through contingent valuation in the developing world [ 25 — 28 ]. To provide economic grounds for supporting investment in air pollution abatement a cost benefit-analysis is often applied [ 29 — 31 ]. Results from valuation studies adopting a benefit transfer framework to circumvent the time and money demands of conducting an original study are also reported in the literature [ 32 , 33 ]. A cost of illness approach is employed by Gupta [ 34 ] to estimate the monetary benefits to individuals from health damages avoidance due to air pollution reduction in India.
Health costs are considered to be incurred due to adverse effects of air pollution on health i. While the majority of studies addressed outdoor air pollution, Chau et al. Authors conduct a meta-analysis to estimate the concentration-response coefficients for different health outcomes to which they then assigned economic value based on existing values from the literature. Findings indicate that there would be some benefit gains for the owners-employers and the society if certain regular filter sets were adopted.
The amount of benefit gains by the owners-employers increases with the average salary level of employees and duration that they stay in offices. Hedonic studies have been also applied to estimate a relationship between housing prices and housing attributes, including health risks associated with air pollution. The value people place on reduced health risks through improved air quality are inferred by their willingness to pay more for houses with better air quality, all else being equal.
Delucchi et al. Comparing results with studies applying the damage function approach, authors find evidence that hedonic price analysis does not capture all of the health costs of air pollution because individuals are not fully informed about all of the health effects to incorporate them into property values. To assess morbidity risk reduction benefits, Navrud [ 37 ] conduct a contingent valuation study to estimate the willingness-to-pay WTP to avoid additional days of seven light health symptoms coughing, sinus congestion, throat congestion, eye irritation, and headache, shortness of breath and acute bronchitis and asthma. Mean WTP for an environmental program that would result to reduced health risks avoiding one additional day of the health symptoms ranges from Mortality risks reduction, expressed as extension in life expectancy, is addressed by Alberini et al.
Finally, Aunan et al. The analysis indicates that the main benefit from reduction of the concentrations of pollutants relates to improved human health. The estimated annual benefit of improved health conditions alone is likely to exceed the investments needed to implement the program even under the lowest estimates. A cost-benefit analysis is also applied by Larson et al. The Value of a Statistical Life was transferred to Russia after adjustment to estimate benefits of reduced mortality. Contact with unsafe drinking or bathing water can impose serious risks both acute and delayed to human health [ 42 , 43 ].
Microbe contamination of groundwater due to sewage outfalls and high concentration of nutrients in marine and coastal waters due to agricultural runoff are among the most serious threats [ 44 ]. In the infrastructurally disadvantaged developing world the water contamination problem is even more prominent [ 46 ]. Although epidemiological studies have provided evidence of severe morbidity attributed to polluted water the issue has received limited attention in terms of valuation studies.
Only few studies explicitly address health effects of drinking and bathing water quality to inform efficient water resources management policies mainly in high income countries. The health risks involved in bathing in polluted sea water are explicitly accounted in the study of Machato and Murato [ 47 ], who employed stated preference techniques to evaluate the multiple benefits of improving the quality of marine recreational waters on the Estoril coast in Portugal. Based on evidence from existing epidemiological dose-response functions a contingent valuation survey was employed to allow for a direct estimate of the health benefits of reduced water pollution. Results indicate that health risk reductions are only a small fraction of the total social benefits of water quality improvements.
Bathing water quality related health benefits are also studied by Johnson et al. A dose-response function between the concentration of Intestinal Enterococci in bathing water and the probability of contracting gastro-enteritis was first determined and then the annual benefits of illness risk reduction were estimated on the WTP values from a stated preference study in England. Georgiou et al. Benefits were estimated based on data from a contingent valuation study and were then related to their costs. Results indicate that mean WTP amounts, representing the economic benefits of the revision are of the same order of magnitude as the estimated potential cost increases in average annual household water bills necessary to implement the revision.
Deviating from the contingent valuation framework, Dwight et al. In the later, the total estimated impact of the human disease attributable to marine pollution by sewage is about three million DALY per year, with an estimated economic loss of some In the developing world, health damages from drinking water contamination are examined by Dasgupta [ 46 ] and Maddison et al. The latter estimates aggregate willingness to pay to avoid health risks, including various cancers, associated with consumption of arsenic contaminated groundwater in Bangladesh. An understanding of the likely impacts of climate change on human welfare is crucial for making an informed decision about the best response strategy to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Consequently, a number of studies have attempted the evaluation of climate change-related health hazards. Bell et al. Results from multiple studies provide strong evidence that the public health benefits related to greenhouse gases mitigation strategies are substantial. The review, however, is restricted to health benefits from air pollution exposure. Benefits from greenhouse gases mitigation policies are also addressed by Burtraw et al. Authors examine the US electricity sector and value changes to human health resulting from carbon emissions based on concentration response functions. A review of the literature evaluating the welfare impacts of climate change, including climate variation-related diseases is also presented in Tol [ 5 ].
Based on the existing literature, Tol concludes that policy response to climate change should be dominated by adaptation, not by mitigation. Welfare losses associated with health impacts induced by global warming are also estimated by Bosello et al. Authors apply a general equilibrium macroeconomic model to infer costs estimates relating to cardiovascular and respiratory disorders, diarrhoea, malaria, dengue fever and schistosomiasis occurrences through changes in labour productivity and demand for health care.
Consistent with the literature, results imply the welfare costs or benefits of health impacts contribute substantially to the total costs of climate change both in terms of GDP and investment. Bateman et al. A common valuation scenario was applied to four countries New Zealand, Scotland, England, and Portugal across which objectively measured risk levels, for example cancer rates, vary substantially.
Authors intended to examine whether scientifically established health risks are reflected in WTP for risk reductions in these countries and results confirm that differences in stated WTP between countries reflects the variation in risk levels between those countries. Health effects from illnesses associated with climate change are also examined in the developing world by Tseng et al. The relationship between climate conditions and the number of people infected by dengue fever was first established and the monetary assessment was then attempted applying a contingent valuation study. Although environmental goods and services have value to society, are often neglected in policy-making as they are not traded in markets and as such are not priced.
A primary cause for environmental degradation and consequent health hazards is failure to identify and internalize in decision-making the economic value of ecosystems. Given the public nature of the environmental resources, market data, if available at all, can lead to misleading decisions regarding the significance of resources protection resulting in further resources depletion and degradation.
Therefore economic valuation is extremely crucial to provide the correct economic indicators and signals for the design of efficient and sustainable economic policies. In the absence of markets, valuation studies can provide policy-makers with the necessary information to acknowledge the contribution of health benefits in the social welfare associated with environmental resources justifying the need for policy intervention to eliminate health effects from environmental hazards. Further, preference elicitation for different socio-economic groups and knowledge of the marginal valuation each group attaches to environmental improvements through valuation studies allows for equity considerations to be taken into account in the formulation of policy responses.
Once aggregated over the full range of beneficiaries, monetary benefits estimated through valuation studies can be compared with the costs of the relevant environmental or health intervention policies through cost-benefit analysis to derive useful information on the efficiency of the planned policy. Welfare changes from alternative policy initiatives can be also assessed and the impact of social, economic and attitudinal characteristics on individual valuation can be examined.
In this respect, valuation studies are significant for policy-making to guide the selection of economic instruments to allocate resources among socially valuable endeavours [ 55 ]. Economic instruments should provide the necessary incentives to all different stakeholders to act in a sustainable way. To halt environmental degradation and associated health effects economic instruments should intend to provide incentives for adopting preventative measures and refraining from polluting activities. Instruments for natural resources management include standards and quotas, abstraction and pollution taxes, subsidies and tradable permits. Taxes, subsidies and quotas are fiscal policy instruments that can internalize the external costs created by natural resources use and if set at the social optimal level can ensure full cost pricing of the environmental goods and services, a necessary condition for sustainability.
Tradable permits systems have been implemented in a number of countries for several pollutants and are also intoduced by the Kyoto protocol with the intention of reducing the greenhouse gases emissions in the contracting counties. Under tradable emission permits, a market for environmental quality is created in which the right to use the environment as a waste sink is priced, and traded [ 56 ]. Further liability systems legal liability, non-compliance charges intending to internalize and recover the costs of environmental damage through legal action causes can be established.
Distributional, environmental and sustainability effects of the implementation of each instrument should also be considered and valuation studies can be really informative in this respect. This is particularly valid for the the developing countries where decision makers are faced with the challenge of mitigating environmental risks while supporting economic growth. To ensure environmental protection while enhancing economic development, economic instruments should be properly designed and implemented and in this respect information from valuation studies is crucial.
Information from valuation studies can also assist the design of efficient insurance programs to mitigate health effects resulting from environmental stresses. These strategies should be able to allocate the aggregate social health risk between socio-economic groups in order to provide efficient, equitable and sustainable coverage against environmental health hazards. Environmental degradation poses a significant threat to human health worldwide. Harmful consequences of this degradation to human health are already being felt and could grow significantly worse over the next 50 years [ 2 ]. Because environment and health are so intimately linked, so too should be environmental and health policies. However, health impacts are non-marketed and thus hard to quantify in monetary terms.
The subsequent risk of being ignored in policy-making is a major concern worldwide. To address this challenge a number of valuation studies have been conducted in both developing and developed countries applying different methods to capture health benefits from improved environmental quality. Valuation results are crucial for the formulation of economic instruments to internalize the externalities created by the public nature of environmental resources.
Elicitations of the preferences and valuations of different social groups through valuations is therefore essential. This paper reviews the main literature in the field. Although not exhaustive, applied research cited in this review provides substantial evidence of strong correlation between exposure to environmental hazards and health risks and reveals that there are significant values associated with longevity and health quality in both developed and developing world justifying the need for policy interventions. Enhancing air quality and securing adequate supplies of safe drinking water is associated with significant benefits for human health and well-being.
Significant benefits are also found to be associated with bathing water quality socially justifying the costs for abatement policies. Climate change effects mitigation is also of great importance in terms of public health benefits. However, certain limitations of the existing literature have been identified. Pearce [ 12 ] argued that a major weakness of the air pollution damage literature has been the focus on outdoor pollution. Still, remarkably few studies have measured indoor air pollution which could be the focus of future research.
It is also noteworthy that only contingent valuation studies have been conducted when stated preference techniques are applied to elicit public preferences for improved air quality. However the Contingent Valuation method is found to be associated with several biases strategic bias, yes-saying bias and embedding effect among others and thus the Choice Experiment method could provide more reliable results [ 57 ]. Future valuation efforts could therefore apply this relatively new stated preference method to assess the social benefit associated with policies attempting to improve air quality.
Finally there are considerably few valuation studies on environmental health risks of air pollution in Europe. Regarding health hazards relating to water, although an international consensus has emerged in policy regarding water quality based on growing concern on environmental and health issues there are few valuation studies eliciting public preferences for improved water quality and subsequently reduced illness risk. Given European and international calls for sustainable water resources management, authors believe that valuing health benefits from surface and groundwater water quality improvements could be a challenging direction for future research especially in the developing world where water quality issues are particularly prominent and the lack of valuations studies is noteworthy.
Moreover, to provide accurate monetary estimates of the benefits of reduced health symptoms associated with environmental hazards, collaboration between economists and epidemiologists should be further enhanced to establish more informed dose-response functions and accordingly formulate the valuation scenarios. Finally, since health benefits from environmental improvements accrue in the long run their assessment should recognize their long-run nature.
It follows that discounting and the subsequent selection of a social discount rate to discount future benefits from a policy intervention is crucial to determine whether a policy passes a cost-benefit analysis test taking sustainability and inter-generational equity into consideration [ 61 ]. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Published online Jul Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Jun 23; Accepted Jul This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract In this article we critically review the economic literature on the effects of environmental changes on public health, in both the developed and the developing world. Keywords: health risks, environmental management, valuation.
Introduction The environment affects our health in a variety of ways. Table 1. The 10 leading causes of death by broad income group Open in a separate window.
No Assignment 3.4 Explain The Construction Challenge expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for Assignment 3.4 Explain The Construction Challenge is Assignment 3.4 Explain The Construction Challenge or preferable to your Assignment 3.4 Explain The Construction Challenge. Gender differences in verbal communication between popular and unpopular children during an interactive task. A cost of illness approach is employed by Gupta [ 34 ] to estimate the monetary benefits to individuals from Assignment 3.4 Explain The Construction Challenge damages avoidance due to air pollution reduction in India. College Assignment 3.4 Explain The Construction Challenge papers also known as reflection essays can typically range Assignment 3.4 Explain The Construction Challenge about words Benefits Of African American Education length. Can you rely on personal experience?